SUMMARY OF 'SAIDS ORIENTALISM'

Edward Said's Orientalism studies how the Western Colonial powers represented Eastern lands during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century's. An important note here is that Said recognizes how Orientalism manages to survive today. It's still seen in Western media reports on Eastern countries, much like the recent coverage of the Commonwealth Games in Delhi. The main point here is that, in Said's critique of Orientalism, he perceives that it is a constellation of false assumptions underlying Western attitudes toward the East. Said also recognizes that even after each colonies independence colonialism does not disappear altogether. He illustrates that representations of colonialism continue after decolonization and are still a major part of how the West views Eastern countries. In McLeod's reading he outlines the general shape of Orientalism, as defined by Said, also going into more detail with the stereotypical assumptions about cultural differences, and the criticisms associated with Said's perspective.

The shape of Orientalism

1. Orientalism constructs binary divisions.

This is the assumption that the East and West exist in opposition, the East being everything the West is not. This is not an equal opposition because the Orient is described negatively in order to maintain a sense of strength and dominance with the West.

2. Orientalism is a Western fantasy.

Said believes that Western perceptions are based on their assumptions about what is different to their own. They are not based on what actually exists inside the East, and are imaginations among many.

3. Orientalism is an institution.

Throughout the institutionalization of Orientalism Western perceptions transform into reliable knowledge. Such knowledge is passed down through academic establishments based on previous imaginations, this shows just how embedded Orientalism is within the West.

4. Orientalism is literary.

Said embodies the influence Orientalism has on a multitude of literary writings. Such influenced writings celebrate Western experiences abroad, and remind people that Western culture is entangled with Western colonialism.

5. Orientalism is legitimating

Now Orientalism is so widespread that it is going to take a political form that supports such colonial ruling. Said points out how Oriental representations exist in the West to justify the propriety of Western colonial rule over Eastern land.

6. There is 'latent' and manifest' Orientalism.

Said divides Orientalism in two to emphasize the connection between the imaginative perceptions of Orientalism and its material effects. Said describes Latent Orientalism as the fantasies about the Orient that remain constant throughout time. Manifest Orientalism is the producing of Orientalist knowledge at different historical periods. Therefore latent Orientalism is the design that manifest Orientalism builds various materialistic versions from.

Stereotypes of the Orient

1. The Orient is timeless.

McLeod insinuates here that the Orient is represented without history in binary opposition to the historical progress of the West.

2. The Orient is strange.

The Orient's stereotype was one of unusual difference and considered bizarre to Westerners. This also came to be perceived as a weakness which the West could take advantage of.

3. The Oriental is degenerate.

Another stereotype is that the Oriental is weak, unsure of them self, and a coward. They were considered people who needed to be saved from their barbaric customs compared to the West's civil ways.

4. Orientalism makes assumptions about gender.

The Oriental men and women were exercised as grotesque parodies of one another. Men deemed insufficiently masculine, women presented as being immodestly sexually active, adding to their prescribed abnormalities.

5. The Orient is feminine.

In addition to the gender assumptions was the gendering of the Orient in opposition to the West. Here the Orient is perceived to be specifically feminine, scrawny and inferior to the muscular stride common to the Western colonial nations.

6. The Oriental is degenerate.

This composed the Oriental stereotypes into the ideas of laziness, untrustworthiness, violence, and feeble temptations that indulged in the lower levels of human behavior. Hence the previous imposition of the West saving the Orient from them self.

Criticisms of Said's Orientalism argue that by making ethnicity and cultural background the test of authority and objectivity in studying the Orient, Said's attention subsequently draws to the question of identity, and the idea of "Who am I?" Which is only the biggest topic in all of Western literature. Other scholars also regarded Said's Orientalism as a genuinely flawed account of Western scholarship over the ages. Such criticisms clearly don't overthrow Said's innovative studies, but they do encourage readers to not be blindly immovable about the business of colonial discourses.

McLeod, L. (2000) Beginning postcolonialism, Manchester University Press, Chapter 2, pp. 37-57

The Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is located in Agra, approximately 200km SE of Delhi. Built in white marble stone, it stands as a monument to Prince Shah Jahan’s favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal who died giving birth to their 14th child. While there are many legends surrounding the story of the Taj, most would agree on the basic but extraordinary statistics. From commencement in 1631 it took 22,000 labourers, 1,000 elephants and 22 years to complete. The marble used in the construction was transported from all over India and Central Asia and the estimated cost was 32 million rupees (US $68,000), nearly 400 years ago.

As a symbol of love and devotion, it appears that the Western World is more caught up in the romance of the Taj and its story than the Indian population. This fervor was introduced at the time of colonialism, a voice of authority on all it surveyed. Entombed in this mausoleum, along with the Prince and his bride, is the hope for eternal love. Exploiting this sentiment, in recent times, the worldwide media positioned Princess Dianna in the headlines as a lone figure, seated prominently in the foreground of the Taj Mahal. Poignant references were made regarding her downcast look as the love forlorn, abandoned by her Prince….. The Taj Mahal has also become a token for marketing purposes, used as a symbol for grand, huge and luxurious. In this sense, it embodies the characteristic of an adjective.

Regardless of its history, its created identity or even its facts, the Taj Mahal seems to carry a magnetic force.

Bibliograph:
Edensor, T (1998), Tourists at the Taj, Performance and Meaning at a Symbolic Site, Routledge, London
http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org
www.tajmahal.org.uk

An Introduction to Buddhism

In 'An Introduction to Buddhism: teachings, history, and practices', Harvey outlines Buddhism’s 2,500 year long history covering its origins in India, across the East and into the West, where today, it has influenced the cultures of over half the populated world. Harvey also sets out a detailed account of the life of the Buddha, the ‘Enlightened One’. Born as Siddhattha Gotama, enveloped in luxury, he renounced his family life and all possessions at the age of twenty nine to discover a life free from the bondage of suffering. After six years of experimentation he found perfect enlightenment while mediating under a tree which then became known as the Bodhi tree. ‘Buddha’ is a term and not a name, therefore, there have since been many buddhas at varying levels of Enlightenment. While Buddhism does not focus on a deity a special reverence has been saved for Gotoma.

In addition, Harvey distinguished the teachings of Buddhism which began with the creation of a 'sangha', home to the monk. The monks then set out to share the teachings amongst the masses. Unlike the Vedic tradition which was delivered in Sanskit, a language that was known only to the elite, the Buddha insisted that the monks used the dialect of the area. Buddhism was a way of life which did not conflict with other religious beliefs and was therefore easily absorbed into a culture. It was founded on the individual being responsible for his or her life and did not rest on the ordinance of a deity. Blind devotion was discouraged as the ideas and practices were to be used for an intended purpose after which they were to be discarded.

Harvey argues that Buddhism broke the mould of the caste system as it was based on respect, which could be earned, not on birth. The Buddha taught all, without exception. His teachings covered the ‘Eightfold Path’ and the ‘Four Nobel Truths’ which set out a way of life that walked between the extremes of devotion; self mortification and over-indulgence.

Harvey concludes with the death of the Buddha in a small village called Kusinara. In spite of months of illness and pain, the Buddha continued to travel on foot keeping the pain at bay with mediation. His final words to his monks were “All conditioned things are subject to decay. Attain perfection through diligence!” (Harvey, 1990, p.27). To his listeners he left a legacy of compassion and loving kindness.

Harvey P. 1990 An Introduction to Buddhism: teachings, history, and practices, Cambridge University Press, England, pp. 1-29

Caste in Contemporary India

Summary of ‘Caste in contemporary India’ by Zelliot

Caste
Caste is one of the most controversial aspects of life in India that has existed for more than 2,500 years. It is a form of inequality within a hierarchy that is found in all religions in India, only tribal people are completely outside the system. Caste covers both varna and jati, which are words used for the English word Caste
The varna system is the name for the original social division of Vedic people into 4 groups, which are subdivided into thousands of jatis

Theories about the origins of Caste
There are many theories about the origins of caste. Here are a few.

1) The racial theory
This theory differentiates a race of Aryans and Dravidian. The Aryans were seen as a white skin Indo-European people who conquered the land of the dark-skinned inhabitants. Because of their superiority and dominance, caste was created

2) Purity and pollution theory
It is believed that it was necessary for the priestly caste to maintain absolute purity and the creation of a group at the bottom who absorbed all pollution. This insisted on the idea of marriage within the group, and endogamy was practiced, where one can only marry another person of the same hierarchy or level. Hence, it was believed that unsuitable marriages between caste groups produced new and inferior castes. This theory probably evolved to protect the purity of upper-class women

3) Patriarchal Theory
It has recently been argued that the development of caste is linked to patriarchy. Hence, women were usually given a subordinate role. As such, women were removed from what was seen as the heart of Hindu orthodoxy and from the priesthood

Reformers of Caste
There have been many people who have tried to reform and remove the caste system in India. This had began as early as the 13th Century, and recently in the 20th Century. One of the great caste reformers of the 20th Century is Ambedkar and Gandhi.

Unlike previous reformers, Gandhi’s stance on caste included great compassion for Untouchables, the lowest castes in traditional Hindu belief. He urged inter-caste marriages, but he upheld the virtues of the varna system and devoted his energies to change through convincing the higher castes to eliminate their prejudices against Untouchables.

As opposed to Gandhi, Ambedkar emphasised more on the political rights and legal protection, believing it was more important and productive than Gandhi’s belief in ‘change of heart’ on the part of the higher-caste Hindus and believed a separate electorate was the only way Untouchables could have true political representation. Ambedkar was the holder of doctorates from Columbia University and London and a barrister. His used this education to speak to every political, education and economic issue, winning representation in government bodies and offices for Untouchables. Hence, he created a higher educational system and many social and political institutions.

However, following the Indian independence, certain policies were implemented in order to counter caste discrimination, such as the reservation system. It is a system of reservations for the bottom layers of society that allowed representation on a quota system in all government bodies and in government employment and government-aided educational institutions.

Furthermore, the system created a large number of educated scheduled castes, many of whom hold important government positions. Although caste is not necessarily illegal, what is illegal in India is discrimination (that is, discriminate against any citizens on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth etc), and this is stated in the Fundamental Rights section of the Constitution of India.

Zelliot, E. (2004), ‘Caste in contemporary India’, in Rinehart, R. (ed.) Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture and Practice, ABC-Clio Publishing, California, p. 243-273.

Said Lecture on Clash of Civilisations

In this lecture delivered at the University of Massachusetts, Said speaks regarding the problems in the way the West presents and enforces their foreign policies and the continuing conflicts between different and clashing civilizations including Western, Islamic and Confucian. He examines how this is shown in the modern world as opposed to the traditional.

In the opening section Said asks "the real question is whether in the end we want to work for civilizations that are separate, or whether we should be taking the more integrative, but perhaps more difficult path, which is to see them as making one vast whole, whose exact contours are impossible for any person to grasp, but whose certain existence we can intuit and feel and study."

He is looking at the current times and what is happening in the world is not the clash of civilisations but the clash of how these civilisation are defined and by whom. He states the the people who really know how a culture operates is a huge conflict for that group and it is never solved.

He goes on to state cultures are not the same. There is an official culture, a culture of priests, academics, and the state. They also provide a definitions of patriotism, loyalty, boundaries and what Said calls belonging. Said said that it is this official defined culture that speaks in the name of the whole.

The lecture presents a distorted view of what is described as Islam is a western view and not how they are viewed form within. Said claims that the current state of the world is a modern type of Orientalism. It is a constructed description meant to arouse a sense of hostility and hatred for an area where these groups reside is an area of strategic importance. Whether that importance is for the wealth of minerals located there or because it threatens a Christian base this location has had a long history with the West.

CASTES OF MINDS:

In a Caste of Minds Nicholas Dirks reviews a consensus of literature compiled about British colonial knowledge of Indian society. It is an extension of his own analyses on the structure of the caste system, that exist in India today. Principally he focuses on the impact that British colonialism had on the interpretation of caste from an Enlightenment mentality to Victorian perspective.

Dirks takes a backward glance at the theories of caste, and discusses the compulsion British writers had not only to understand Indian history, but to justify British rule of India. As he unpacks this labyrinth of work he discovers the nineteenth century cartographer and surveyor, Mackenzie, who while recording Southern India's local traditions and religious and philosophical texts, had inadvertently uncovered that costume was the key to ethnographic difference, that accounted for Indian social order.

In examining the colonial sociology of India, Dirks raises the prospect that modern India to-day may have lost sight of their identity due to the British manipulating the culture of India from their colonial perspective of anthropology, and anthropometric observations. Thereby the caste system was transformed to a model of social organization, which could be recognized by European Society.

Dirks from his examination of the textual records of British colonial history draws the conclusion that there is a likelihood that colonization resulted in a recasting of India. Moreover he states that this textualisation of social India under British rule remains in the country's prevailing bureaucracy of the twenty first century.